Smallholder adaptation pathways and resilience in African forest-agriculture landscapes: a review of climate impacts and economic implications

Purpose This review synthesises empirical evidence on smallholder farmers' knowledge, attitudes, and climate change adaptation practices in forest-agriculture landscapes across Sub-Saharan Africa and the Global South. The review advances African forest economics scholarship by examining behavioural determinants of adaptation and their implications for forest-dependent livelihoods, with particular attention to Ghana and West African forest-savannah transition zones. Design/methodology/approach Following PRISMA 2020 guidelines, systematic searches were conducted in Scopus, Web of Science, and ScienceDirect to identify peer-reviewed studies published between 2018 and 2026. Of the 3,124 initial records, 67 studies met the inclusion criteria after rigorous screening. Data extraction specified the dependent variables (adaptation practice adoption rates and composite indices), the independent variables (knowledge scores, attitude and risk perception measures, self-efficacy ratings, and institutional access indicators), and the effect measures (prevalence proportions and Pearson r). Quality appraisal was conducted using the Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool, and meta-analytic synthesis was conducted using random-effects models with the DerSimonian-Laird estimator implemented in R version 4.3.1 (metafor package). Findings Climate awareness is widespread (pooled rate: 78.4%, 95% CI: 72.1–84.7%; z = 18.4, p < 0.001), though substantial between-study heterogeneity (I2 = 94.7%, Cochran's Q = 774.3, p < 0.001) indicates this estimate reflects a descriptive central tendency rather than a precise parameter. Knowledge of climate change is widespread among African smallholders, but it does not translate into comprehensive adaptation. Crop diversification is the dominant strategy (adoption rate: 67.3%), while forest-based adaptations, including agroforestry (34.2%) and non-timber forest product collection (28.7%), remain underutilised despite their economic potential for livelihood resilience. Attitudes mediate the knowledge-practice relationship (pooled r = 0.42, z = 14.1, p < 0.001), yet institutional support mechanisms explain greater variance in adoption than individual-level behavioural factors. Because the majority of included studies employ cross-sectional designs (77.6%), these associations are correlational and cannot support causal inference. Geographic concentration in East Africa (47.8%) leaves West African forest-savannah transition zones critically underrepresented. Originality/value This review advances African forest economics by reconceptualising adaptation as embedded within forest-agriculture systems rather than isolated farm-level decisions. The proposed Forest-Agriculture Adaptation Typology integrates behavioural economics with institutional analysis, offering a novel framework for African forestry policy and climate adaptation programming. Findings challenge dominant Knowledge-Attitude-Practice assumptions and redirect scholarly attention toward governance determinants of forest-dependent livelihood resilience in African contexts.