Physical–Digital Interactions in VR: User-Elicited Paradigms for Accessible Model Manipulation

This work investigates new physical–digital interaction paradigms during VR-based model manipulation, addressing the growing need for accessible, intuitive interaction approaches in immersive environments. It advances understanding of how graspable, user-defined gestures and physical affordances can support spatial reasoning and interaction confidence during design review tasks. Drawing on a synthesis of prior literature and a user elicitation study, the research produces new empirical insights into tangible gesture preferences and the role of familiar physical metaphors in VR interactions. A structured review of VR model manipulation systems was conducted, examining physical controllers, in-air hand gestures, direct and indirect manipulation techniques, and different haptic feedback approaches. This review is consolidated through the development of a new taxonomic classification of tangible interaction modalities for VR model manipulation, organised by feedback type and functional specificity. Building on this foundation, a requirement elicitation survey engaged participants in mapping everyday objects and gestures to manipulation tasks and evaluating physical interaction concepts informed by earlier work on accessible VR tools. Findings highlight consistent preferences for interaction metaphors grounded in everyday experiences, emphasising the importance of spatial alignment, distinct physical affordances, and viewpoint coherence. These insights informed the design and implementation of a VR physical interface prototype, a novel tabletop device that integrates multiple manipulation functions within a single, grounded interaction space. User-based evaluation demonstrates promising outcomes in terms of perceived intuitiveness, spatial understanding, and confidence during model manipulation tasks. The findings establish a foundation for developing further user-elicited, physically grounded gestural interaction paradigms and outline pathways for future research and practice in the design of accessible, human-centred physical–digital interfaces. Collectively, these directions have the potential to support human understanding, agency, and participation within increasingly complex immersive environments.