Ecosystem services, functions, and the value of intact kelp ecosystems

BACKGROUND: As evidence mounts on resource limitations for humanity there is increasing interest in provision of 'Ecosystem Services' (ES). ES are the essential or beneficial services provided by the Earth's ecosystems but, importantly, usually involve their economic or monetary values. Despite widespread adoption of the ES framework, many natural ecosystems continue to degrade, including nearshore marine habitats dominated by kelp and fucoid algae that support coastal productivity, biodiversity, and, in many cases, economies. Climate change interacting with human population increases, expanding urbanisation, intensified land uses, and material flows from land to sea are compounding pressures on these systems and threatening their ecological functioning. But perhaps we have the wrong focus on ES. The economic framing of ES has not consistently generated the awareness or stewardship needed for effective ecosystem management. Greater attention may instead be warranted on the intrinsic value of intact ecosystems and the non-monetary benefits they provide. SCOPE: Here we focus on the intrinsic attributes and functions of ecosystems necessary for them to persist and thrive, and the intrinsic structure and ecological processes that underpin fully functioning macroalgal ecosystems - so-called 'ecological infrastructure'. We argue that grounding the economic-based, human focus of ES with a greater focus on ecosystem functioning (nature for nature's sake and the unfettered functioning of ecosystems) offers a perspective as compelling as human-focussed benefits alone. CONCLUSIONS: We argue there should be a greater emphasis on the ecological functions that sustain intact kelp systems, and the moral responsibility to maintain fully functioning kelp ecosystems for future generations, whose values and desired 'services' may be different from those at present. In New Zealand, at least, the involvement of coastal communities will be essential for such improvements, well-encapsulated in the Māori term 'mauri', which is an all-encompassing term for the health of the ocean environment (moana).