Playing with the invisible: unveiling the drivers of user engagement in serious games for intangible cultural heritage

Intangible cultural heritage is a vital component of global cultural heritage, and serious games are increasingly employed for its preservation and dissemination. However, the key factors driving user engagement in ICH-based serious games and their underlying mechanisms remain insufficiently understood. This study develops a SOR model integrating functional, interactive, and entertainment attributes to explain engagement in ICH-based serious games. Partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM), artificial neural networks (ANN), and necessary condition analysis (NCA) are combined to capture linear and nonlinear relationships and to distinguish sufficient and necessary factors. Results show that authenticity, knowledge acquisition, interactivity, emotional connection, perceived playfulness, and design esthetics enhance cultural identity, perceived usefulness, and perceived enjoyment, thereby promoting engagement. Notably, authenticity, knowledge acquisition, interactivity, and perceived playfulness function as both necessary and sufficient conditions for perceived usefulness. These findings provide empirical guidance for optimizing serious game design and strategic development in ICH contexts.