Farmer perceptions of climate variability, adaptation practices, and livelihood implications in the Garhwal Himalaya

Climatic variability is increasingly reshaping agricultural systems across the Indian Himalayan Region (IHR), with significant implications for smallholder livelihoods. This study examines how observed climatic trends interact with farmer perceptions, adaptation practices, and livelihood outcomes in the mid-altitude Garhwal Himalaya. The study adopts a mixed-methods approach, combining 128 household surveys, focus group discussions, and key informant interviews across five villages with 20 years of climatic records from the India Meteorological Department. Trend analysis reveals statistically significant warming and increasing rainfall variability, closely aligning with farmers’ reported perceptions. Farmers respond through incremental adaptation strategies, including adjustments in sowing and harvesting calendars, crop diversification, adoption of stress-tolerant varieties, and selective integration of traditional ecological knowledge with modern practices. A gradual shift toward market-oriented horticulture is observed; however, this transition remains uneven across households and is mediated by access to irrigation, markets, and institutional support. While commercialization is associated with rising agricultural incomes, it coincides with declining food self-sufficiency, increased labour burdens on women, and greater market dependence, indicating a reconfiguration rather than uniform strengthening of livelihood resilience. Persistent structural constraints, including limited irrigation, uneven institutional reach, and labour shortages, continue to shape adaptation pathways. Overall, the findings show that adaptation in mid-hill Himalayan systems is incremental and household-contingent rather than structurally transformative, highlighting the need for context-specific and gender-responsive adaptation strategies that account for household heterogeneity and elevation-specific conditions in mountain agriculture.