The Enduring Legacy of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants from Ancient Civilizations to Modern Era – A Brief Overview

The historical utilization of medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) represents a cornerstone in the development of global medical and pharmaceutical sciences. This paper reviews the ancient wisdom surrounding MAPs, tracing their systematic use from the earliest recorded civilizations to the late premodern era. Beginning with the Mesopotamians, where empirical healers (asû) and ritual exorcists (āšipu) integrated botanical therapy with spiritual practice—the narrative expands to Ancient Egypt, highlighting herbal pharmacopoeias documented in the Ebers and Edwin Smith Papyri. The theoretically-grounded systems of Traditional Chinese Medicine and Ayurveda are examined. The analysis further encompasses the Hittite, Greco-Roman, and pre-Columbian South American civilizations, underscoring the systematic and often spiritually-embedded nature of their plant-based therapies. A significant focus is placed on the Islamic Golden Age, where pharmacy emerged as an independent, regulated profession, and scholars such as Al-Razi, Ibn Sina, and Ibn al-Baytar advanced botanical science through critical compilation and cross-cultural synthesis. Finally, the Ottoman synthesis of this inherited knowledge is explored, highlighting its integration of diverse traditions and advanced galenical techniques. The paper concludes that herbal medicine developed as a cumulative global endeavour, supported by exchange routes like the Silk Road, and continues to inform modern pharmacognosy and the ongoing search for novel therapeutics.