Unveiling the improvement mechanisms of moist-heat and hot-air treatments on the flavor of Panax quinquefolius

Abstract China-grown American ginseng, namely Panax quinquefolius (PQ), faces significant limitations in food industry applications due to its undesirable flavor. Moist-heat and hot-air treatments (MHHA) are one of the main methods for processing PQ. However, its impact on both flavor and functional components of PQ remained unclear. To address this issue, we proposed a three-step strategy termed “HE + H + EH”, comprising the integration of human sensory evaluation and electronic tongue (HE), HPLC‑Q‑TOF‑MS (H), and the integration of electronic nose and HS‑GC‑IMS (EH). Human sensory evaluation and electronic tongue analysis demonstrated that MHHA effectively improved the taste of PQ by significantly reducing its bitterness while enhancing its umami taste. Using HPLC‑Q‑TOF‑MS, we identified 75 compounds in PQ and 90 in processed Panax quinquefolius (PPQ). Notably, the content of five bitter malonylginsenosides decreased significantly, which contributed to the reduction in PQ’s bitterness. Meanwhile, five newly generated rare bioactive saponins were detected: vinaginsenoside R 7 , ginsenosides Rk 1 , Rg 5 , Rg 6 , and Rh 4 . Electronic nose and HS‑GC‑IMS analyses revealed that MHHA reduced the levels of undesirable odorants. This study highlighted the role of MHHA in improving the flavor and generating functional ingredients in PQ. These findings provided a solid foundation for the application of PQ in food development.