Quantum Innovation and Geopolitical Transformation: A Historical-Comparative Analysis

Abstract Quantum theory emerged as a European intellectual endeavour in the early twentieth century; today, more than thirty countries have established national initiatives on quantum innovation, collectively mobilising tens of billions of dollars in public and private investment. This surge reflects the perceived economic and security significance of quantum technologies. Drawing on scholarship from the history and geopolitics of science and technology, this paper examines the entanglement of quantum innovation and geopolitical transformation. We trace the evolution of quantum physics from its inception in Germany, through its militarisation during the world wars and the Cold War, to its current role in a globalised and contested innovation landscape. We argue that advancements in quantum innovation have been deeply embedded in the global geopolitical structures and processes over the past 125 years. By situating quantum innovation within its broader historical and political contexts, we demonstrate that quantum physics and its industry and military applications have always been intertwined with broader (geo)political and economic conditions. In this way, our paper provides important insights into the historical pathways that have shaped current innovation landscape for quantum technologies, as well as a sense of potential future directions in the global race for quantum supremacy.