Decoding the scribe’s choice: Contextualising papyrus protocols through ink analysis

Abstract This study investigates the inks employed in Arabic papyri from early Islamic Egypt, preserved across five collections in Europe. The analysis encompassed several sub‑types of documentary texts to explore potential correlations between ink composition, document function, and context of production, with particular emphasis on papyrus protocols: texts written on the outermost sheet of the papyrus roll providing information relevant to its production. A non-invasive methodology, featuring a combination of two-colour digital microscopy, infrared reflectography and X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy was employed to analyse the inks, which were then classified as either carbon-based or iron-gall inks. Notably, all 24 examined Arabic papyrus protocols were written with a pure iron sulphate or metallic iron-based iron‑gall ink. The results were compared to papyri originating from the same (7 antecedent Byzantine protocols) and distinct (34 coeval Arabic and Greek texts) contexts of production to provide a broader perspective. The ink used for writing the later Byzantine protocols was also determined to be an iron-gall ink, further hinting towards a functional correlation between papyrus protocols and the choice of iron‑gall ink used. By contrast, all the documentary and private texts examined in this work, were determined to have been written with carbon‑based inks, irrespective of their degree of formality or context of production. This result accords with trends reported in previous scholarship for the Byzantine period. Overall, the results contribute to our understanding of Arabic scribal traditions and of the significant influence exerted by pre-Islamic scribal conventions and practices on its development.