The Karadağ Stratovolcano: A Multi-phased Volcanic Geoheritage Area in South-Central Anatolia, Türkiye

Abstract The Karadağ Volcanic Complex (KVC, Central Anatolia) represents a significant example of volcanic geoheritage, where diverse eruptive products, tectonomagmatic evolution, landscape formation, and cultural heritage converge within a single geological framework. This long-lived polygenetic system, characterized by shoshonitic, absarokitic, adakitic, and banakitic lavas, domes, and associated pyroclastics, reflects post-collisional volcanism influenced by transtensional tectonic regimes. Facies analysis enabled the differentiation of central, medial, and distal volcanic domains, encompassing crater-neck structures, intrusive feeder dykes, lava dome and flow units, base-surge and lahar deposits, and distal tephra layers and provides a coherent framework for interpreting eruptive styles, transport mechanisms, and depositional architecture. Sentinel-2 remote sensing data supported the discrimination of volcanic (mafic-felsic), pyroclastic, and sedimentary units and aided in identifying potential geosite candidates. Beyond its volcanological importance, Karadağ preserves a rich archaeological and cultural heritage record embedded directly within its volcanic landscape. Volcanic rocks-particularly dacitic and andesitic lavas-were widely utilized in a range of structures, including functional and defensive constructions (e.g., rock-cut cisterns, fortification remains, and the Roman Pool) as well as religious architecture such as churches. Moreover, the Geosite Assessment Model (GAM) was applied to quantitatively evaluate geoheritage value, indicating consistently high scientific, educational, and management scores across the selected geosites, with most classified in the highest significance category (Z(3,3)). This highlights their priority for geoconservation and sustainable geotourism development. Taken together, the findings of this study demonstrate that Karadağ represents a volcanic geoheritage system of international significance, encompassing multi-phase volcanism and a long-term archive of human-volcano interaction.