Hazard perception in manual and hands-off Level 2 driving under daytime and after dark lighting conditions: A driving simulator study

Abstract The aim of this study was to examine drivers’ hazard perception in an urban scene, under two different lighting conditions (daytime and after dark) and for two different levels of driving automation (manual driving and hands-off SAE level 2 automation). Forty-eight participants took part in four experimental drives in a driving simulator, encountering six different hazardous/potentially hazardous events in each drive. Results showed that drivers detected hazards significantly earlier and were more likely to react to the hazards in daytime, compared to after dark environments, particularly when pedestrians were approaching the road from the left. However, there was no significant difference in their response time towards the hazards, between the daytime and after dark environments. In terms of driver response in the two automation levels, the majority of drivers were proactive and reacted before the potentially hazardous events turned into actual hazards during manual driving, but responses were more reactive during automated driving. These findings highlight the need to account for context of the driving environment such as lighting conditions and levels of driving automation when designing systems or protocols that aim to support hazard perception and timely driver response.