Analytical Methods for Fluid Biomarkers in Alzheimer’s Disease from Discovery to Clinical Implementation

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is increasingly recognized as a biological continuum characterized by early neuropathological and molecular changes that precede the onset of clinical symptoms. Fluid biomarkers have transformed the diagnostic landscape by enabling the in vivo detection of core AD pathologies, particularly amyloid-β deposition and tau-related neurodegeneration. Despite the rapid expansion of candidate biomarkers, however, only a limited number have successfully translated into clinical practice. Discovery-phase approaches, primarily driven by mass spectrometry-based proteomics, enable the unbiased identification of novel biomarker candidates across multiple biological pathways. Research-phase methods, including immunoassays such as enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), electrochemiluminescence immunoassays (ECLIA), microfluidic platforms, and ultrasensitive technologies such as single-molecule array (SIMOA), support analytical and clinical validation in well-characterized cohorts. Clinical implementation has been advanced by fully automated platforms, including Lumipulse and Elecsys, which have obtained regulatory approval for cerebrospinal fluid biomarkers and, more recently, blood-based biomarkers. These developments represent a paradigm shift toward minimally invasive and scalable diagnostic strategies that may reduce dependence on neuroimaging techniques. Nevertheless, major challenges remain, including assay standardization, inter-platform variability, demonstration of clinical utility, and barriers to widespread clinical adoption. This review provides a comprehensive overview of analytical methods used to measure AD fluid biomarkers in cerebrospinal fluid and plasma, structured according to the biomarker development pipeline from discovery to clinical implementation. Overall, the review highlights a fit-for-purpose approach to biomarker development and emphasizes the complementary roles of diverse analytical technologies across the different phases of biomarker translation.