Material design strategies for low-temperature, high-efficiency solid oxide fuel cells

Abstract Fuel cells are emerging as a clean, efficient, and versatile energy technology capable of converting chemical energy directly into electricity with minimal environmental impact. Low- and intermediate-temperature solid oxide fuel cells (LT-/IT-SOFCs) have gained significant attention due to their potential for high efficiency and fuel flexibility at reduced operating temperatures. This review focuses on recent advances in material design strategies for fuel cells, emphasizing electrolytes, anodes, and cathodes. High-performance electrolyte materials, including perovskite-based, doped ceria/zirconia, and proton-conducting oxides, have demonstrated enhanced ionic conductivity, structural stability, and durability under low-temperature operation. Ni-based cermet anodes, perovskite anodes, and transition-metal-modified composites have improved fuel utilization, carbon tolerance, and electrochemical activity. Material innovations such as multi-element doping, nanostructuring, and thin-film engineering have been important in achieving higher power densities and long-term stability.