Faunal resource use in the Solutrean of Western-Central Iberia: the case of Gruta do Caldeirão (Tomar, Portugal)

Abstract Gruta do Caldeirão (Tomar, Portugal), first excavated in 1979–1988, contains a well-dated stratigraphic sequence spanning the last 60,000 years of the region’s Prehistory. Excavation resumed in 2021–2025; here, we report on the zooarchaeological and taphonomic analysis of the small assemblage of macromammal remains retrieved in the Late Gravettian/Protosolutrean to Upper Solutrean levels explored during this latter phase of work at the site. Taxonomic composition, skeletal-part representation, age profiles, fragmentation, fracture morphology and bone surface modifications were recorded to identify accumulating agents, carcass transport decisions and processing strategies, and to place Gruta do Caldeirão within MIS (Marine Isotope Stage) 2 regional subsistence patterns. The assemblage is dominated by ungulates, especially red deer, with contributions from ibex, horse, aurochs and wild boar; carnivores (leopard, lynx, wildcat, wolf and fox) are rare. The extensive fragmentation, the frequency of green-bone fractures, percussion damage and burning, together with the position of cut marks observed on long bones, demonstrate that humans were the primary agents of bone accumulation and exploited carcasses for meat and marrow. The skeletal part representation and the adult age of the prey indicate selective hunting (medium-sized ungulates were preferentially targeted). Carnivore marks are scarce, while the composition of the carnivore assemblage and the location of cut marks on a phalanx suggest exploitation for the extraction of non-dietary resources. These finds corroborate the conclusions reached by Davis (2002) using the POSAC method of analysis applied to the assemblage from the 1979–1988 excavations. The Solutrean levels of Gruta do Caldeirão shed additional light on the diversity of human-environment interactions at the height of the Last Glacial Maximum in western-central Iberia: in montane contexts, subsistence systems are consistently red deer-focused, whereas coeval lowland rockshelter occupations (e.g., Abrigo do Lagar Velho’s Middle Solutrean levels) also rely significantly on the exploitation of horses.