Reproductive performance, disease occurrence, and mortality of goats under smallholder conditions in Dodoma, a semi-arid region of Tanzania

Smallholder goat production is a vital livelihood strategy in semi-arid areas of Tanzania; however, reproductive efficiency and health constraints limit productivity. The current study employed a cross-sectional survey of 450 households in Dodoma-Tanzania, conducted during the dry season (August 2025), to identify management factors associated with reproductive performance, disease occurrence, and mortality in indigenous goats. The findings showed that the median age at first kidding was 14 months, the kidding interval was 13 months, and the average lifetime parity was 4.0 ± 1.0, while buck sexual maturity occurred at 10 ± 3 months. Access to extension services and communal grazing was associated with earlier puberty and first kidding (p < 0.001), while supplementary feeding unexpectedly lengthened the kidding interval and reduced lifetime parity (p < 0.001). Controlled mating and larger landholdings improved lifetime parity (Incidence Rate Ratio [IRR] = 1.14 and 1.03, respectively). Mineral supplementation significantly accelerated buck sexual maturity (p < 0.001) and lowered disease occurrence (OR = 0.16; p < 0.001) and mortality (OR = 0.28; p < 0.001). Better housing (roofed-shelters and slatted-floors) and semi-intensive systems provided strong protection against disease and lower death risk (OR = 0.25 and 0.24, respectively). Interestingly, supplementary feeding was associated with an increase in diseases (OR = 3.12) and mortality risks (OR = 2.45), possibly due to concentrate-related digestion problems or overcrowding. These findings suggest that mineral supplementation, improved housing, and stronger extension services can have a positive effect on goat productivity and survival in resource-limited smallholder settings of semi-arid regions.