Anopheles ecology and serological evidence of malaria exposure in clinically malaria-free areas of Menoreh Hills Central Java, Indonesia

Malaria transmission in near-elimination settings is often sustained by complex interactions between vector ecology, environmental conditions, and human activities. The Menoreh Hills of Central Java remain an area of persistent malaria exposure despite limited clinical cases, yet the ecological and epidemiological drivers are not fully understood. This study examined the ecology, spatial distribution, and host-feeding behavior of Anopheles mosquitoes together with larval habitat characteristics and human serological evidence of exposure across four villages in a low-transmission region approaching elimination. Dominant vector species were consistently present throughout the night and closely associated with livestock environments, while productive breeding sites were shaped more by habitat quality than by their number. Spatial patterns suggested that livestock shed placement and surrounding landscapes influenced mosquito abundance and potential human exposure. Host-feeding patterns involving both humans and livestock indicated opportunistic feeding behavior that may contribute to sustaining transmission at low levels. Serological findings revealed marked differences in exposure between villages, with higher antibody responses in some locations despite the absence of clinical cases, highlighting spatial variation in malaria exposure. Together, these findings demonstrate that localized ecological conditions, vector behavior, and human practices jointly shape malaria risk in the Menoreh Hills and highlight the importance of context-specific approaches for understanding and addressing malaria persistence in near-elimination settings.