Positive childhood experiences are independently associated with adult resilience after accounting for adverse childhood experiences: A cross-sectional study in India

BACKGROUND: Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) are known risk factors of poor adult mental health. Conversely, Positive Childhood Experiences (PCEs) have emerged as promotive factors associated with better mental health. Guided by Resiliency Theory, which emphasizes the role of both risk and protective factors in shaping adaptive outcomes, this study addresses a gap in the literature on how ACEs and PCEs are associated with adult resilience. OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to investigate the relationships among PCEs, ACEs, and resilience in Indian adults and to determine if PCEs independently influence resilience even after adjusting for ACEs, gender, and age. METHODS: In this cross-sectional study, 347 adults recruited from a wellness center in western India completed measures assessing ACEs (14-item, with follow-up trauma-informed interview validation), PCEs (7-item), and BRS (Brief Resilience Scale, 6-item). Pearson correlations, two-way ANOVA, and multiple linear regression (continuous ACE, PCE, and ACE × PCE interaction) were used to test the hypotheses. RESULTS: PCEs were positively correlated with resilience and negatively correlated with ACE14 (p < .001). ACEs also showed a negative correlation with resilience (p < .001). ANOVA showed significant differences in resilience across PCE and ACE categories, with no significant interaction between ACE and PCE. Linear regression confirmed that higher PCEs and male gender predicted greater resilience after adjusting for ACEs, gender, age (p < .05), and the ACE × PCE interaction was not significant. CONCLUSION: The findings support a compensatory (additive) model in which PCEs are independently associated with higher resilience, rather than buffering (moderating) the ACE-resilience association, after accounting for gender and age. These findings highlight the importance of fostering supportive childhood environments as a public mental health strategy. Future work should validate the findings across broader demographics using longitudinal designs and more representative sampling across India.