Settlement patterns, soils and agriculture in the early Neolithic (ca. 5600–4500 cal BC) of Southern Iberia

• GIS and multivariate analyses reveal non-random site selection in the Early Neolithic in Southern Iberia. • Open-air settlements were preferentially located on fertile soils and gentle slopes suitable for cultivation. • Cave sites were concentrated in karstic landscapes with gentle slopes and east–south orientations. • Carpological data show the predominance of naked wheat and barley with a decrease in crop diversity over time. • Caves and open-air sites were complementary elements of a single farming system. This paper investigates the relationship between settlement patterns, environmental variables, and agricultural strategies during the Early Neolithic (ca. 5600–4500 cal BC) in Southern Iberia. While previous research has focused on cultural and chronological characterizations, the influence of edaphic and topographic factors on settlement choice remains largely unexplored. Using Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and multivariate statistical analysis, including Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and PERMANOVA, this study evaluates 33 archaeological sites −categorized into cave occupations and open-air settlements- by analyzing soil types, terrain slope, relative elevation, and orientation. The main results confirm significant environmental differences between the two types of sites. Cave occupations are fundamentally linked to karstic landscapes, with a preference for lower slope positions and East/South orientations to maximize thermal comfort. Conversely, open-air settlements actively selected fertile soils, such as Cambisols and Fluvisols, on gentle slopes suitable for cultivation. Carpological data point to a farming economy dominated by naked wheat and barley, with a diachronic trend towards crop specialization and reduced diversity starting in the 5th millennium BC. Major conclusions suggest that the traditional dichotomy between caves and open-air sites does not represent two distinct economies. Instead, it is better understood in terms of different spatial and logistical configurations within a broadly similar productive repertoire, adapted to heterogeneous landscapes. The evidence suggests that natural shelters and open-air camps could have functioned as complementary components of the same productive network.