Archetypal business models for MaaS: An empirical typology of operational MaaS firms

Mobility as a Service (MaaS) has often been presented as a coherent model of integrated mobility, but in practice providers have implemented it through markedly different business models. Although the prior research has examined some of these configurations, we still lack comparative empirical evidence on how operational MaaS providers actually structure and sustain their business models. To address this gap, we develop an empirically grounded typology of business model archetypes among operational MaaS providers. Drawing on an inductive multiple-case study of 50 firms worldwide, supported by documentary evidence as well as by interviews and surveys with MaaS stakeholders and experts, we identify five archetypes: Mobility Platforms, Highly-diversified Providers, Lowly-diversified Providers, Enablers, and Mobility Embedded Providers. These archetypes differ systematically in terms of market orientation, degree of service integration, asset ownership, geographical scope, revenue architecture, scalability, and core strategic orientation. Our findings make visible the distinct trade-offs, risk profiles, and viability conditions associated with alternative MaaS configurations, thereby offering a stronger empirical basis for future research on provider viability, scalability, and governance. At the same time, the study provides practical value by offering providers a benchmark for positioning and refining their business model, as well as by helping policymakers and public authorities to design more targeted procurement, support, and governance interventions aligned with the specific MaaS configuration at stake.