Engineering Advanced Nanomaterials for the Efficient Extraction of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances from Complex Samples

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) are a class of synthetic compounds that have seen extensive application across various industries. Due to their persistent environmental presence and potential health risks, PFASs have garnered significant attention in recent years. The continuous improvement of laws and regulations has driven the development of PFASs alternatives. However, the health and environmental risks associated with PFASs have not yet been mitigated. Therefore, the adoption of efficient extraction methods is essential to enable sensitive monitoring of both legacy PFASs and emerging substitutes. This review deliberated on the exposure and health risks of legacy and novel PFASs, while also providing a comprehensive elaboration on the recent advancements in solid-phase extraction (SPE) techniques for isolating PFASs from various matrices. We have investigated the advanced nanomaterials applicable for different SPE techniques. Furthermore, the latest applications of SPE in the separation of PFASs in environmental, food, beverages, biological samples and living organisms have been presented. The review concluded by outlining current challenges and trends of the SPE techniques for the detection of PFASs.