Patterns of WASH demand across diverse socioeconomic and infrastructure settings in Pakistan

Access to water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) remains a critical development challenge in Pakistan, where infrastructural deficits and behavioral disparities perpetuate social and spatial inequities. This study investigates how socio-economic characteristics interact with infrastructure availability to shape WASH behaviors across diverse local settings. Using nationally representative data from the Pakistan Social and Living Standards Measurement Survey (PSLM), a dual control group framework distinguishes behavioral determinants from structural access constraints. Logistic regression models are applied to compare households with and without WASH infrastructure across three dimensions—willingness to pay for improved water supply, soap use, and toilet availability. Results reveal that the effects of age, gender, and education vary substantially by infrastructure context, while persistent rural and ethnic inequalities continue to suppress WASH engagement. Moreover, intent–action gaps are evident among higher-income and educated groups, highlighting the limits of infrastructure-led interventions. The study underscores the need for disaggregated, context-sensitive strategies that integrate behavioral reinforcement with equitable service provision to achieve inclusive and sustainable WASH outcomes.