Role of silver nanoparticles and Bacillus cereus in modulating growth, photosynthetic activity, and antioxidant responses in sorghum under cobalt stress

), which also induced increased compounds of various enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidants, organic acids, and also the gene expression and sugar content. Furthermore, a significant (P ≤ 0.05) increase in proline metabolism, was observed. Although, the application of B. cereus showed a significant (P ≤ 0.05) increase in plant growth and biomass, gas exchange characteristics, enzymatic and non-enzymatic compounds, and their gene expression and also decreased oxidative stress and also organic acid exudation pattern. The application of B. cereus and Ag-NPs decreased the proline metabolism in S. bicolor plants. Research findings, therefore, suggest that the application of B. cereus and Ag-NPs can ameliorate Co toxicity in S. bicolor, resulting in improved plant growth and composition under metal stress, as depicted by balanced antioxidant defense mechanism. These findings highlight the potential of nanotechnology and beneficial microbes as sustainable strategies for mitigating heavy metal toxicity and improving crop performance in contaminated soils, thereby contributing to environmentally resilient agricultural systems.