Three-dimensional virtual prototyping for designing firefighting gear: an exploration of manufacturer perceptions

Abstract Guided by the Technology-Organization-Environment (TOE) framework, this study explores how firefighting gear manufacturers perceive 3D apparel visualization software and how these perceptions shape their intentions to adopt the technology. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 12 experts from six companies producing wildland and structural turnout gear, including pattern makers, designers, technical designers, and a business manager. Content analysis revealed that manufacturers viewed 3D apparel visualization software as a useful tool for pattern optimization, visualizing air gaps, and improving communication with municipal customers. However, participants also highlighted significant technical limitations, particularly in simulating composite materials, multilayer garment structures, and substantial ease and air gap behavior in structural turnout gear. They also noted constraints related to organizational slack, including financial and human resource demands and disruptions to established workflows. Adoption decisions were further shaped by key industry characteristics, such as stringent National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) standards, unchanging garment style requirements, conservative industry norms, and varying levels of business partner readiness. The findings extend TOE research to a specialized functional clothing context by highlighting sector-specific constraints and the importance of distinguishing between current capabilities and perceived future value. Practical implications are offered for software developers, regulators, and manufacturers seeking to align digital design investments with the technological and regulatory realities of firefighting gear innovation.