Beyond adoption models: a context-sensitive framework for understanding metaverse integration in higher education

Purpose This study aims to create a clear framework for understanding how the metaverse is adopted in higher education, with particular attention to contextual, institutional and governance-related differences. While previous research has examined adoption from different angles, there is still no unified model that incorporates the various factors affecting adoption at the individual, pedagogical, technological, organizational, environmental, ethical and societal levels. Design/methodology/approach The framework is built through a review of existing literature. This study conducted a structured review of 76 peer-reviewed publications, including 67 journal articles, 3 conference papers, 5 book chapters and 1 other source. These were published from 2015 onward in major academic databases, focusing on studies that looked at adoption, acceptance, readiness or governance of the metaverse and related immersive technologies in higher education. A concept-focused synthesis helped organize adoption factors into seven connected themes. The references include 9 studies at the individual level, 11 at the pedagogical level, 10 at the technological level, 10 at the organizational level, 14 on environmental factors, 8 on ethical and governance issues and 10 on societal and future readiness. Findings The review shows that adoption is a complex process with connections across different levels. The study needs to consider individual readiness, pedagogical design and technological infrastructure together with organizational strategy, environmental pressures, ethical concerns and long-term societal effects. The proposed framework reflects these relationships by combining evidence from 76 studies into a structured overview across seven layers. Rather than assuming uniform adoption trajectories, the framework emphasizes how institutional context, governance conditions and resource asymmetries shape the feasibility, form and consequences of metaverse adoption across higher education systems. Originality/value By bringing together ideas from different theories and past studies, this paper presents a practical framework that enhances our understanding of how higher education can adopt the Metaverse. The framework not only offers a basis for future empirical testing but also provides a critical analytical lens for educators, institutions and policymakers to evaluate, adapt or contest Metaverse-based initiatives in light of institutional priorities, ethical responsibilities and contextual constraints.