Dose-dependent hormetic-like effects of green-synthesized AgNPs on Salvia officinalis: a biochemical and morphophysiological perspective

), relative water content (79%), and stomatal index (39.9). Volatile oil analysis revealed concentration-dependent shifts in metabolite composition, with moderate doses (100-200 ppm) aligning with balanced growth and metabolic adjustment, while the highest dose (400 ppm) corresponded to growth suppression and broader compositional changes.The coordinated responses observed in germination, leaf anatomy, and secondary metabolite profiles suggest that low-dose AgNPs exposure may induce a hormesis-like response, linking mild nanoparticle-induced stress with enhanced phytochemical production in Salvia officinalis.