NMR-based metabolomics of Indonesian <i>jamu</i> for diabetes: chemical composition, toxicity, and zebrafish behavioral impact

H-NMR analysis identified a total of 30 metabolites, and Principal Component Analysis (PCA) revealed that JM clustered independently from the individual plant extracts, with consistent presence of all plants' key metabolites in JM. Zebrafish acute toxicity study showed that JM extract showed no mortality up to 800 mg/L with no significant signs of toxicity related to stress or anxiety based on behavioural assessments. This suggests that the unique chemical composition of JM contributes to the synergistic phytochemical activity associated with its low toxicity and therapeutic efficacy.