"More than passive victims" : youth agency in wartime France, 1939-1945

This thesis examines how French young people – aged six to twenty-one – experienced and adapted to wartime and the German occupation, from 1939 to 1945. Traditional historiography has mostly characterised young people as passive victims of the war. Thus far only few historians, among them Nicholas Stargardt and Lindsey Dodd, have depicted young people as active historical agents. This study demonstrates how youth agency was performed in Second World War France. The analysis of youth diaries and letters throws into sharp relief young people's resilience, adaptation, independence, and initiative. Confronted with wartime dislocation and the disruption of family life, they developed coping strategies to safeguard both their own emotional wellbeing and that of their loved ones. Through the war, they adapted to the uncertainty and violence of wartime, and re-established a sense of normalcy in their everyday life through ordinary activities such as attending school and pursuing hobbies. As they grew older, they became preoccupied with romantic relationships, sexuality, and the way they looked, while also acting out gradations of rebellious behaviour. Even in oppressive environments such as camps and prisons, young people developed defence mechanisms and survival skills. They adopted modes of positive thinking even when facing deportation and death. Ego-documents also evidence young people’s independence of opinion in terms of their criticism towards authorities, their policies and propaganda. Acutely aware of possible repercussions, some youth showed defiance and even resistance against German occupation and the Vichy regime. While some joined Resistance networks, others engaged in daily acts of defiance and illegal behaviour. This thesis draws on diaries and letters from young people of various backgrounds, including urban and rural youth, Jews, and resistance fighters. It is also a tribute to them.