Advances in the application of biofabrication: 3D bioprinting of living materials

Three-dimensional (3D) bioprinting technology is used to fabricate complex 3D structures using various biological molecules and biomaterials. The numerous 3D printing technologies are divided into four categories: extrusion-based bioprinting, laser-assisted bioprinting, stereolithography, and inkjet-based bioprinting. The sources used for 3D bioprinting include natural polymers (gelatin, agarose, collagen, fibrin, and alginate), synthetic polymers [polycaprolactone, poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid), and polyvinylpyrrolidone], and living materials (mammalian cells, plant cells, and microorganisms). Living materials provide environmental parameters and facilitate the natural synthesis of complex biomolecules with biofunctions. This review provides a systematic overview of recent advancements in the development of 3D bioprinting technology, emphasizing the use of living materials as bioinks, particularly mammalian cells, plant cells, microorganisms, and microalgae. We briefly discuss the promising applications of using living materials for 3D printing in the medical field, robotics industry, and environmental protection. Furthermore, limitations and current challenges for standardization of living materials and future prospects of using 3D bioprinting technology are also reviewed. This review also presents the potential future applications of 3D bioprinting technology using living materials.