Ameliorative effects of Spirulina platensis niosome and Echinacea purpura on cyclophosphamide-induced splenic, cardiac and neurotoxicity via modulating NF-κB pathway and oxidative stress

Cyclophosphamide is a widely used chemotherapeutic agent, but its administration is often associated with severe and life-threatening side effects. This study aimed to evaluate the protective efficacy of Spirulina platensis noisome and Echinacea purpurea against cyclophosphamide-induced splenic, cardiac, and neurotoxic effects. A total of 42 adult male rats were divided equally into seven groups. Group I served as the negative control. Group II was injected with cyclophosphamide. Groups III to VII received various protective oral treatments for 14 days prior to cyclophosphamide: Group III received Spirulina, Group IV received Spirulina niosome, Group V was treated with Echinacea, Group VI received a combination of Echinacea and Spirulina, and Group VII received a combination of Echinacea and Spirulina niosome. Hematopoietic parameters, creatine kinase, nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB), malondialdehyde, nitric oxide, glutathione levels, superoxide dismutase activity, and histopathological examinations were performed. All treated groups showed improved blood profiles, antioxidant status in cardiac and brain tissues, and reduced tissue damage. NF-κB activation was also modulated. These findings suggest that cyclophosphamide induces significant oxidative and inflammatory responses leading to tissue injury. However, administration of Echinacea and Spirulina offered promising protective effects, proposing a potential novel strategy to counteract cyclophosphamide toxicity.