The Multifaceted Effects of Anthropogenic and Climatic Factors on Ecological Networks

ABSTRACT Aim Biotic interactions, such as pollination, seed dispersal, and parasitism, are key for biodiversity and ecosystem function. Ecological networks quantify the structure of biotic interactions, providing a framework to evaluate their spatial dynamics under global change. While climate and human influence are important predictors of network structure, we hypothesize that such effects depend on the interaction type and the organisms involved. It remains unknown whether different types of ecological networks such as mutualistic (plant‐pollinator, seed‐dispersal) and antagonistic (host–parasite) respond similarly to anthropogenic pressures and climate. Addressing this gap is critical to understand how ecological communities are reshaped under global change. We aim to test whether mutualistic and antagonistic networks exhibit consistent or divergent structural responses to human impact and climatic conditions. Location Global. Time Period 1967–2020. Major Taxa Studied Animalia, Plantae. Methods We compiled 383 mutualistic and antagonistic ecological networks worldwide and characterized their structure with connectance, nestedness, modularity and specialization metrics. We compiled temporally matched anthropogenic and climatic factors and used linear mixed effects models to assess the influence of these factors on network structure. Results Climate was the primary driver of ecological network structures for plant‐pollinator and host–parasite networks, but exerted a negligible influence on seed‐dispersal networks. Conversely, the relationships with anthropogenic factors varied significantly depending on the interaction type and the taxa involved. Bird‐mediated networks were highly sensitive to human impacts, exhibiting increased nestedness in seed‐dispersal networks and decreased modularity and specialization in plant‐pollinator networks. Insect‐driven pollination networks also responded to human impacts, showing a significant increase in connectance. In contrast, mammal‐dispersed and host–parasite networks showed limited structural responses to anthropogenic factors. Main Conclusions The overarching structure of ecological networks is mainly determined by climate, excepting seed‐dispersal. Meanwhile, the influence of human impact on network structures depends on the taxa involved, with bird‐ and insect‐driven networks having stronger associations with anthropogenic factors than mammal‐dispersed and host‐parasite networks.