Global epidemiology and integrated control of foot and mouth disease within a one health framework

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is one of the most contagious viral infections affecting livestock, including cattle, water buffalo, pigs, sheep, goats, and African buffalo. Caused by the foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV), it continues to impose a significant economic burden, with annual losses estimated at up to 21 billion U.S. dollars. This review examines the worldwide epidemiology and control of FMD through a One Health approach, emphasizing the interconnectedness of animal, human, and environmental health. Vaccination remains the most effective strategy for preventing and controlling FMD in both endemic and non-endemic regions, particularly when vaccines are well-matched to circulating strains. However, silent circulation of FMDV, where animals carry and shed the virus without showing clinical signs, presents a critical challenge to eradication efforts. Mucosal immunity emerges as a key component of protection, serving as the first line of defense at the virus’s point of entry and playing a vital role in blocking transmission. Equally important is the establishment of robust and systematic surveillance systems capable of detecting asymptomatic FMDV infections, which are essential for identifying hidden reservoirs and preventing undetected spread. Effectively combating FMD requires coordinated efforts that go beyond vaccine development alone. Success depends on integrated surveillance networks, strict quarantine and movement restriction policies, reliable diagnostic infrastructure, and the implementation of One Health frameworks that bring together veterinary services, agricultural authorities, and public health sectors. Together, these strategies bridge the gap between disease control and ultimate eradication.