Nusantara Traditional Houses in Borobudur Reliefs: 3D Architectural Reconstruction and Typological Analysis

This study found new knowledge that the traditional house relief in Borobudur is not only ancient Javanese, as some researchers mentioned, but also broader Javanese in Nusantara (Indonesian archipelago). The research classification of conventional Javanese houses based on roof forms has not addressed the stilted house. Existing theories are built on houses from the Islamic Sultanate/Mataram Islam era (1500–1800 AD). In Borobudur Temple (pre-Mataram Islam/Hindu-Buddhist era), constructed in the 8^th – 9^th century AD, archaeologists have identified six house typologies based on roof form, presented in two-dimensional architectural drawings. It is essential to reconstruct these into three-dimensional architecture and compare them with five Javanese architectural typologies and house forms outside Java. This study uses literature review, 2-dimensional drawing, and is constructed for 3D architectural modelling. The findings indicate continuity in Limas' roof typologies between Borobudur reliefs and Mataram Islam-era traditional Javanese houses. At the same time, stilt structures can be observed in conventional houses outside Java, such as Minangkabau (Sumatra) and Toraja (Sulawesi). The stilt and roof forms in Borobudur reliefs reflect not only Javanese traditional houses, but also those in Nusantara (the Indonesian archipelago).