The Lion and the Jackal: Community perspectives on carnivores and human-carnivore coexistence along the periphery of one of the largest fenced protected areas in northern Namibia

Human-carnivore conflict severely hampers conservation, especially where resource overlap is high between carnivores and humans. This study assessed human-carnivore coexistence along the northern boundary of Namibia's Etosha National Park (ENP) by examining long-term trends in livestock depredation (2007–2023), carnivore killings, analyzing ecological/anthropogenic influences on depredation risk, assessing local perceptions, and evaluating the benefits of the Community-Based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM) model. Spotted hyena, black-backed jackal, lions, leopard, brown hyena and cheetahs killed 5087 livestock (mostly goats and cattle). Depredation risk was higher near the ENP fence, farther from roads, at greater elevations, and near riverbeds, but decreased with an increased human footprint. Questionnaire surveys (N=150 households) revealed strong negative perceptions of lions, spotted hyenas, positive perceptions of jackals, and an average annual financial loss of US$1100 per affected household. Although CBNRM provided tangible and intangible benefits, the average benefit for an individual was only US$2.9 and a significant proportion perceived discrepancy in direct income, especially from trophy hunting, with over half of respondents feeling they received no direct economic benefits from conservancies. Achieving effective coexistence necessitates addressing ecological factors, livestock predation, and crucial socioeconomic elements influencing tolerance within communities. • Spotted hyena, black-backed jackal, and lions were the major carnivore species killing livestock. • Local community members had strong negative perception of lions and positive perception towards jackals. • Households affected by livestock depredation faced an average financial loss of U$1100 whereas the benefits from the CBNRM model was only U$2.9 per individual. • Distance from the park fence, roads, riverbeds, elevation, and human footprint index determine spatial risk of livestock depredation.