Global trends and socio-political impacts of ecological resettlement: A systematic review

Ecological resettlement has been widely applied as a conservation strategy to protect ecosystems and expand protected areas, yet its global patterns and socio-ecological implications remain insufficiently synthesized. This study investigated spatial–temporal trends in ecological resettlement research, quantified affected human communities, and examined the ecological resettlement spectrum using a space–time–power framework, as documented in empirical studies, to inform sustainable management of geo-heritage and other protected areas. A double-diamond systematic literature review approach was adopted using the Web of Science and Scopus databases, screened more than 16,700 records, and synthesized evidence from 164 empirical studies published between 2001 and 2023. Results indicated that ecological resettlement research has increased over time; however, it remains marginal within conservation scholarship, with studies predominantly authored by researchers from the Global North and largely conducted in the Global South, particularly in Asia and Africa. Reported ecological resettlement study durations extended up to 41 years, with some lasting as long as 54 years. Only 42% of studies were quantified, documenting the displacement of 296,816 families, 2042 villages, and 343,873 individuals, suggesting substantial underreporting. Long-distance (>5 km), permanent (88%), and slow-paced (>5 years) resettlement were common, while forced displacement (55%) exceeded voluntary relocation (35%), despite most cases being formally planned. These patterns revealed persistent governance and power asymmetries that undermine livelihoods, cultural heritage, human rights, and human–nature relationships. The findings suggest that conservation planning should prioritize coexistence-based, participatory approaches that respect free, prior, and informed consent, strengthen community stewardship, promote equitable conservation outcomes, and that ecological resettlement should be considered only as a last resort. • Mapping ecological resettlements (ER) is crucial for informing future conservation policies, yet a global synthesis of ER studies is sparse. • A meticulous literature review spanning 2001–2023 analyzed 164 empirical studies, revealing alarming trends in ecological displacement. • Reported displacement tolls include the 28 countries, comprising 296,816 families, and millions of individuals globally. • ER directly contributed to a one-third increase in protected systems worldwide, while evicted areas impact local livelihoods and cultures. • ER should only be considered as a last resort, and where it is unavoidable, it should follow the principles.