Bioactive compounds in goat milk as ACE-inhibitory agents: a systematic review

• Research on milk and ACE activity has progressed significantly in the past decade • Goat milk contains peptides with ACE-inhibitory potential • Caseins were the main precursors of ACE-inhibitory peptides • Most evidence is based on temperate dairy breeds, not tropical goat • Future studies should integrate in silico, in vitro, and in vivo approaches Hypertension remains a major cause of global morbidity, requiring long-term prevention strategies, including nutritional interventions. Milk is a source of animal protein that contains bioactive compounds, particularly peptides that inhibit angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE), which may help reduce blood pressure. This review systematically explores the ACE-inhibitory potential of goat milk bioactive peptides, synthesizing evidence from in silico, in vitro, and in vivo studies on ACE-inhibitory activity. The findings indicate that goat milk proteins, particularly αs1-casein, αs2-casein, β-casein, and κ-casein, are the primary precursors of ACE-inhibitory peptides. While most existing studies focus on dairy goat breeds in temperate regions, this review highlights the significant potential of goat milk peptides and identifies critical research gaps regarding bioactive compounds from local goat breeds in tropical regions, such as Indonesia. By systematically mapping the ACE inhibitory potential from global evidence, this study provides a theoretical framework for the future development of functional foods derived from tropical goat milk.