Conflict or coexistence? Rice farmers’ perceptions of services and disservices provided by waterbirds and the challenges of conflict mitigation

Abstract Rice fields are increasingly vital habitats for waterbirds due to global wetland loss, but this is often in conflict with agricultural interests. Farmers generally see waterbirds as a source of crop damage, which fosters negative perceptions and leads to the adoption of dissuasion techniques aimed at deterring birds from their fields. Balancing agricultural productivity with conservation thus requires understanding these conflicts. This study examines rice farmers’ perceptions of waterbirds in Portugal, focusing on perceived positive and negative impacts for rice production, the effectiveness of dissuasion methods, and potential conflict mitigation strategies. Focusing on one of Portugal’s largest rice field areas, questionnaire-based interviews revealed that farmers perceive waterbirds unfavourably due to visible crop damage, overlooking their ecological benefits. Flamingos, storks, and ibises were regarded as the species causing the greatest crop damage during sowing and harvesting. Dissuasion techniques were seen as moderately effective but necessary. Perceptions varied by age and education: older farmers viewed waterbirds less negatively but were less willing to consider conflict mitigation strategies, while younger farmers held particularly negative perceptions. Farmers with higher formal education had especially positive perceptions and were open to solutions, while simultaneously viewing dissuasion as cost-effective. Despite these differences, most farmers favoured economic compensation for crop damages over other conflict mitigation approaches. This study underscores the need for a better understanding of perceived impacts alongside accurate data on crop damage and economic value of waterbirds’ ecosystem services. A multifaceted strategy – understanding farmers’ concerns and priorities, addressing knowledge gaps, involving farmers in decision-making, and implementing compensatory measures – can help balance biodiversity conservation with agricultural productivity, promoting coexistence between waterbirds and rice farmers.