Inflammatory biomarkers of atherosclerosis in SLE that may improve SLE-specific cardiovascular risk assessment tools

Cardiovascular (CV) events (CVE) are a leading cause of morbidity and mortality in systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), and affected patients display a two- to three-fold higher risk than the general population. This increased CV risk remains underestimated by traditional CV risk algorithms, which do not account for SLE-specific drivers of accelerated atherosclerosis. The aim of this review is to examine key biomarkers and immune-mediated pathways involved in immune dysregulation and vascular injury. By comparing their contribution to SLE pathogenesis and atherosclerotic plaque development, we have highlighted biomarkers that may be incorporated into more accurate, SLE-specific CV risk assessment tools.