From Geological Adaptation to Technological Diffusion: A Cross-Civilisational Study on the Transmission and Impact of Ancient Tunnel Engineering

ABSTRACT Geological conditions were the primary constraint on ancient tunnel engineering and a crucial backdrop for the evolution of engineering technology and the formation of regional differences. Ancient tunnel technology, a core engineering achievement that enabled humanity to overcome complex geological and geographical environments, achieve spatial connectivity, and regulate resources, was widely used in key areas such as water conservancy, transportation, and military affairs. Existing research mostly focuses on case studies of individual civilisations or specific types of technology, lacking a systematic review of the global paths of technological spread, driving mechanisms, and comprehensive impacts. This study adopts an interdisciplinary approach by integrating evidence and perspectives from archaeology, geology, engineering mechanics, and historical geography. It systematically examined the differences in technical systems of water conservancy, transportation, and militaryfuneral tunnels across major civilisations in Eurasia and North Africa from 3000 BCE to 500 CE, traced the dissemination paths and carriers of key technologies, analysed the driving factors behind technological diffusion, and explored its multi-dimensional impacts on engineering iteration, economic development, and cultural cognition in ancient societies. The study found that ancient tunnel technology had formed a core dissemination belt characterised by “origination in the Near East, diffusion across the Mediterranean, and integration in inland Eurasia.” The mobility of craftsmen, civilisational interactions, and strategic resource demands were the three core driving forces behind technological diffusion. Technological dissemination not only enabled the cross-regional iteration of engineering methods but also served as a crucial link supporting the intensification of agriculture, the networking of trade, and the rise of cities. By foregrounding geological adaptation, this study uncovers the historical logic underlying the co-evolution of technology and civilisation, offering a new framework for understanding the coupled dynamics of early engineering innovation and cross-cultural interaction.