Multi-metal contamination shapes abundance, co-occurrence, and mobility potential of resistance and virulence genes in mining-impacted soils

• High-level metal stress significantly altered microbial community structure and antibiotic resistance gene composition, and decreased metal resistance gene and antibiotic resistance gene diversity. • Fe, V, Cr, and Cu primarily promoted the relative abundance, richness, carrying rate, and co-occurrence rate of metal resistance genes, antibiotic resistance genes, and virulence factor genes. In contrast, Ni and Zn exhibited overall inhibitory effects. • Fe, V, and Ni enhanced the overall mobility potential of metal resistance genes, antibiotic resistance genes, and virulence factor genes, respectively. • Fe and V specifically increased the mobility potential of transposon-mediated metal resistance genes and antibiotic resistance genes, respectively. Antimicrobial resistance is a growing global public health concern, posing a serious threat to human health. This study aimed to characterize the composition and distribution of microbial communities, metal resistance genes (MRGs), antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs), and virulence factor genes (VFGs) under multi-metal stress and assess the impacts of metal and soil properties on the diversity, abundance, carrying rate (proportion of gene carriers), co-occurrence rate (proportion of microorganisms co-carrying multiple gene types), and mobility potential (MP, likelihood of horizontal gene transfer) of these genes. Soil samples were collected from eight sampling sites within a metal mining area (metal-contaminated soil group, MS) and four sites located more than 3 km away from the mining area (control group). Metal concentrations and physicochemical properties of the soils were measured using standard methods. Metagenomic sequencing was performed to characterize the composition and distribution of the microbiome, resistome, and virulome. Statistical modeling was applied to examine the effects of heavy metal content and soil properties on the relative abundance, co-occurrence, and mobilome potential of the three gene types. Fe, V, Cr, and Cu primarily promoted the diversity, carrying rate, and co-occurrence rate of microbial communities, MRGs, ARGs, and VFGs. In contrast, Ni and Zn exhibited overall inhibitory effects. For every unit increase in Fe and V, the MP of MRGs and VFGs was associated with an increase of 3.0 × 10⁻⁵ and 1.2 × 10⁻⁵, respectively. A per 1 mg/kg increase in Cr and Cu was correlated with a decrease of 4.3 × 10⁻⁵ and 1.1 × 10⁻⁴ in the MP of ARGs and of MRGs, respectively. Positive correlations were found between the MP of plasmid‑mediated ARGs and Cr, and between transposon‑mediated ARGs and Cr/V. The MP of transposon‑mediated MRGs correlated positively with Fe, while Cu correlated negatively with plasmid‑mediated ARGs but positively with insertion sequence‑mediated ARGs. Ni concentration was positively associated with the MP of IS‑mediated VFGs. Metals alter the composition and distribution of microbial communities, MRGs, ARGs, and VFGs. A key mechanism underlying this regulation is the modulation of their mobile potential, which either facilitates or restricts horizontal gene transfer.