Antimicrobial Efficacy and Mechanistic Insights of 0D, 1D, 2D, and 3DNanoparticles: A Review

The escalating global challenge of Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR) underscores the urgent need for alternative therapeutic approaches beyond conventional antibiotics. Nanoparticles (NP), with their distinct physicochemical properties, tunable morphologies, high surface reactivity, and structural diversity, have emerged as promising candidates in combating microbial infections. This review adopts a dimensional framework encompassing zero-dimensional (0D), one-dimensional (1D), two-dimensional (2D), and three-dimensional (3D) nanostructures to systematically classify and analyze their antimicrobial mechanisms. Key bactericidal pathways explored include the generation of Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS), physical disruption of microbial membranes, controlled metal ion release, and light-mediated effects such as photothermal and photodynamic actions. Each dimensional class of NPs exhibits unique interactions with bacterial cells, influenced by parameters such as geometry, crystallinity, surface chemistry, and specific surface area, all of which collectively dictate their antimicrobial potency and selectivity. Furthermore, nanotoxicity, scalability, and clinical applications have also been addressed. This review focuses on the rational design and optimization of next-generation nanomaterials by linking nanostructural characteristics to specific antibacterial pathways. Such an approach provides an outline for customizing NP-based systems to more effectively fight resistant infections. Furthermore, we discussed the development of novel, multi-mechanistic techniques for reducing the global burden of AMR and promoting the transition of nanotechnology-enabled antimicrobials from laboratory research to real-world clinical and environmental applications.