Lights-out manufacturing between Industry 4.0 and Industry5.0: efficiency benefits, risks and socio-economic implications

This theoretical paper examines lights-out factories as an advanced stage of smart manufacturing at the intersection of Industry 4.0 and Industry 5.0. Building on recent literature, the study conceptualizes lights-out manufacturing as a cyber-physical production paradigm in which automation, robotics and artificial intelligence enable highly autonomous operations, particularly in repetitive, hazardous or ergonomically unfriendly processes. The paper synthesizes the main technological and economic benefits – higher efficiency, extended operating time, improved quality and better safety – while highlighting structural barriers such as high upfront investments, technological complexity and cybersecurity risks, especially for SMEs. Furthermore, it discusses the evolving role of human work, arguing that lights-out factories do not eliminate labour, but shift it towards design, supervision, data analysis and system integration, in line with the human-centric agenda of Industry 5.0. The article concludes that lights-out factories should be understood not only as a technological option, but as a strategic choice with significant implications for employment, skills development and social cohesion in manufacturing-based economies