Integrative molecular mechanisms of exercise: From intracellular signaling to systemic therapeutic effects – A narrative review

Exercise activates intricate molecular mechanisms that enhance an organism’s adaptability by modulating intracellular signaling pathways, gene expression, and metabolic processes. These mechanisms exert significant effects across various biological systems, from muscle tissue to systemic metabolism, immune responses, and the nervous system. These effects are primarily mediated through the regulation of energy metabolism, mitochondrial biogenesis, the balance of oxidative stress, inflammation control, the enhancement of synaptic plasticity in the nervous system, and the upregulation of neurotrophic factors. During exercise, the modulation of critical signaling pathways such as AMPK and mTOR at the cellular level, along with the increased expression of antioxidant genes, further supports these adaptive responses. In recent years, research on the molecular biology of exercise has provided innovative findings, enabling a deeper understanding of the health benefits associated with exercise. Furthermore, it has laid the groundwork for developing molecular strategies capable of replicating exercise-induced benefits even in individuals unable to engage in physical activity. Nevertheless, comprehensive studies examining exercise at the molecular level remain limited, indicating that many aspects of this field are still unexplored. This review therefore provides a timely and valuable contribution by addressing this gap and offering a holistic overview of exercise-induced molecular effects to guide future research.