What is compassion connected to, and does it differ by gender and age? A network analysis of compassion, self-compassion, mindfulness, empathy and mental health

Abstract Compassion is an emotional state experienced in response to witnessing the suffering of others, accompanied by an internal motivation to help. When directed toward the self, it is referred to as self-compassion. Previous research suggests that compassion and self-compassion are closely related to mindfulness and empathy, contributing to reductions in anxiety and depression and to the enhancement of positive affect. Accordingly, this study employed network analysis to explore the complex structure of interactions among these psychological variables. A total of 1,020 Korean adults completed measures of compassion, self-compassion, mindfulness, empathy, well-being, and negative affect (depression, anxiety, and stress). An EBICglasso network was estimated in R (version 4.5.1). Centrality indices were computed, and subgroup networks were constructed by gender and age to compare structural differences. The results showed that compassion was closely connected to empathy, whereas self-compassion was more strongly linked to mindfulness and well-being; the capacities to feel, tolerate, and alleviate suffering emerged as central nodes. In the gender-based networks, compassion and self-compassion among men tended to be organized primarily around cognitive factors, whereas women exhibited a pattern in which the behavioral motivation for compassion was activated relatively immediately, even in the absence of emotional responding. In the age-based networks, the influence of suffering tolerance was most pronounced in middle-aged adults, while the role of empathy diminished and the role of mindfulness expanded in older adults. By examining compassion at the level of its constituent elements and visualizing the interaction structure among related variables, this study provides an empirical foundation for extending theoretical understanding and for developing tailored intervention strategies.