Integrating E-nose, E-tongue, and GC–MS analysis reveals the volatile profile and flavor characteristics of different huajiao cultivars

)-Linalool furanoxide. Metabolic pathway analysis indicated that aroma variation was primarily associated with differences in terpenoid biosynthesis, including shifts between monoterpene and sesquiterpene accumulation and variations in oxidation and esterification efficiency. Consistent with chemical profiling, E-nose and E-tongue analyses successfully discriminated cultivars based on odor and taste attributes. These findings provide a chemical basis for flavor-driven huajiao breeding and product development.