Species-specific responses of bees to Flupyradifurone: Enzymatic stress biomarkers reveal higher sensitivity in Neotropical larvae compared to Apis mellifera

Bees are essential pollinators facing increasing anthropogenic threats, particularly pesticide exposure. Flupyradifurone has sublethal impacts on non-Apis bees that remain poorly understood. This study incorporates Neotropical stingless bees as model organisms and uses field-realistic concentrations to evaluate physiological stress through enzymatic biomarkers, including acetylcholinesterase (AChE), carboxylesterase (CaE-3), glutathione S-transferase (GST), glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PDH), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), glucose oxidase (GOX), and glutathione reductase (GR) in larvae of Apis mellifera, Melipona scutellaris, and Scaptotrigona postica. In A. mellifera, only AChE activity decreased at the highest concentration. In M. scutellaris, AChE activity decreased at both concentrations, while GR increased at the lowest. S. postica was the most affected, showing increased GST and G6PDH at both concentrations and elevated ALP at the highest. These results reveal species-specific physiological responses, with stingless bees exhibiting more pronounced stress, highlighting the need to include native species in risk assessment frameworks.