Health and safety considerations for healthcare simulation: a scoping review of published literature

BACKGROUND: The unique environments created within healthcare simulations may create distinct health and safety risks for patients, learners, simulation faculty and staff, and other participants involved in these activities. Guidance to aid simulationists to manage the physical risks arising from simulation activities is limited and there is no integrated synthesis of known risks or risk mitigation strategies. OBJECTIVES: To identify and examine literature addressing the physical health and safety risks associated with healthcare simulation, in order to inform the development of effective safety management strategies. METHODS: This review included published empirical research and non-empirical literature (e.g., commentaries, editorials) examining physical health and safety risks associated with any form of healthcare simulation programme, event, or facility. A multi-pronged search strategy was used including electronic databases, Google Scholar searches, and reference list searches of literature published between 2010 and 2025. Risks, contributory factors and mitigation strategies were identified and mitigation strategies were coded according to the Hierarchy of Controls framework. RESULTS: Sixteen articles were included. The literature most frequently identified physical health and safety risks to patients during in-situ simulation. Risks to participants and simulation staff or faculty were reported less often and primarily related to exposure to clinical equipment and musculoskeletal injury associated with the physical demands of simulation. Risks to simulated participants included clinical interventions being performed on them. Contributory factors included learner inexperience and failure to recognise risks, rule violations, pursuit of realism in simulation, poor simulation design, inadequate preparation, and lack of formal safety systems. Mitigation strategies were predominantly administrative, with rules, procedures, and checklists reported in 94% of sources, while elimination and engineering controls appeared in 37% and 19% respectively. There was call for clinical governance tools and processes to support a robust simulation health and safety approach. CONCLUSIONS: These findings highlight the need for co-designed, simulation-specific governance tools, including standardised risk assessments, adverse event reporting systems, and safety policies tailored to simulation environments. These tools should be embedded within, and aligned to the parent organisation's health and safety governance process, rather than constituting a separate or parallel governance process.