Phenylurea herbicides in the environment: Recent updates on occurrence, distribution, risk assessment, and removal techniques

Global population growth and economic development have driven a rapid increase in agricultural production, leading to a substantial rise in the application of pesticides such as phenylurea herbicides (PUHs). However, the large-scale and extensive use of PUHs has led to their widespread occurrence and persistent residues across ecosystems, posing potential long-term environmental hazards. Given the complex metabolic behavior, cumulative toxicity, and high systemic transport characteristics of PUHs, this paper provides a comprehensive update and summary of the occurrence, distribution, degradation pathways, and removal strategies of PUHs in various environmental matrices. We systematically compare the strengths, limitations, and applicability of mainstream removal technologies (e.g., advanced oxidation, bioremediation, adsorption). Furthermore, we highlight recent advances in novel functional materials and synergistic treatment systems, and propose feasible optimization directions and future development pathways for current technologies. This work is expected to offer a scientific basis and valuable insights for the environmental monitoring, risk control, and remediation of PUH contamination.