Suitability of sensor technologies for monitoring water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) behavior in year-round coastal grazing systems

Water buffalo ( Bubalus bubalis ) are increasingly used for landscape management on rewetted peatlands, where monitoring their behavior and welfare remains challenging due to large, water−rich and difficult−to-access grazing areas. This study evaluated the suitability of two Precision Livestock Farming systems under such conditions. Thirty cows were equipped with smaXtec intraruminal boluses from March to December 2025, and thirteen animals additionally carried RumiWatch pedometers from March to August. Across a 169.17 ha summer and a 13.67 ha winter pasture, the systems recorded 916,881 bolus measurements and 61,726 pedometer data points. The pedometer data showed clear daily rhythms during the recording period: averaged across all animals (n=7), the buffaloes spent 9.07 h per day lying, 11.45 h standing, and 3.05 h walking. In addition, when bolus transmission was functioning (n=29), body temperature (mean 38.89 °C) and rumination time (mean 488.60 min/day) could be recorded. The activity values of both systems were positively correlated (r = 0.72), indicating consistent temporal trends in locomotor activity. Although the hydrologically dynamic landscape occasionally affected data transmission and sensor retention, the systems proved fundamentally suitable for practical buffalo management. The results demonstrate that PLF technologies can support welfare monitoring in water buffalo on rewetted peatlands, provided that deployment and infrastructure are adapted to the specific challenges of wetland grazing systems.