Beyond antimicrobial efficacy: Complex interactions of sodium benzoate, potassium sorbate, and citrate alter the rat gut microbiome

BACKGROUND: The gut microbiome is increasingly recognized as a target of dietary food additives. Sodium benzoate (SB), potassium sorbate (PS), and citric acid (Cit) are widely used preservatives, yet their combined effects on the intestinal microbiota remain poorly understood. This study investigated the individual and combinatorial impacts of these three compounds on key bacterial populations in the rat gut. METHODS AND RESULTS: ), or their binary combinations in drinking water for 8 weeks. Fecal samples were analysed by selective culture and quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR). All treatments significantly reduced Lactobacillus abundance (P < 0.05). Citrate alone and in combination with SB markedly increased Enterobacteriaceae (P < 0.01), with the Cit + SB group showing the highest levels. Enterococcus populations were elevated in most treatment groups, particularly after Cit + SB exposure. Staphylococcus responses were context-dependent: increased by SB or PS alone, but suppressed by citrate-containing combinations. Combination effects were often non-additive, with citrate frequently overriding the antimicrobial action of benzoate or sorbate. CONCLUSION: Chronic exposure to common preservatives at no-observed-adverse-effect level (NOAEL) induces significant, synergistic shifts in the gut microbiota, characterized by loss of beneficial Lactobacillus and expansion of potentially pro-inflammatory Enterobacteriaceae and Enterococcus. The unexpected promotion of Enterobacteriaceae by citrate reveals its role as an active ecological modulator. Our findings challenge the adequacy of single-additive safety assessments and support the inclusion of microbiome endpoints in regulatory toxicology. © 2026 Society of Chemical Industry.