Chlorinated organophosphate esters in Brazilian solid waste: concentrations, national load estimates, and regulatory implications for a circular economy

Following restrictions on PBDEs, chlorinated organophosphate esters (Cl-OPEs) have been increasingly used as flame retardants and plasticizers in consumer products. Growing concern stems from evidence that some Cl-OPEs are linked to adverse health outcomes and can migrate from products, enabling human exposure via indoor dust and direct contact. Here, we quantified three Cl-OPEs (TCEP, TCIPP, and TDCIPP) in solid waste generated in Brazil across four streams: construction and demolition (C&D) waste, end-of-life vehicles (ELVs), soft furnishings, and childcare items. ELV waste showed the highest concentrations (mean ΣCl-OPEs = 5600 mg/kg), with 12 samples exceeding 1000 mg/kg. Soft furnishings had lower concentrations overall (mean 53.0 mg/kg), although one sample exceeded 1000 mg/kg; childcare items (mean 4.4 mg/kg) and C&D waste (mean 0.5 mg/kg) exhibited comparatively low levels. While concentrations in Brazilian waste were markedly lower than those reported in Europe and North America, contamination hotspots require priority attention. Extrapolation suggests that ∼813 t/year of waste may contain ΣCl-OPEs >1000 mg/kg, corresponding to ∼11.5 t/year of Cl-OPEs requiring management. Tris(1,3-dichloro-2-propyl) phosphate (TDCIPP) dominated the estimated mass (up to 96%), whereas tris(2-chloroethyl) phosphate (TCEP) was the least abundant, averaging only 1%. Overall, these findings underscore the substantial burden of Cl-OPEs in certain consumer products and waste streams, particularly those associated with vehicles and upholstered furniture. They also highlight the urgent need for regulatory measures to mitigate human and environmental exposure to these compounds and to encourage the adoption of safer alternatives within the framework of a circular economy.